Подборка зарубежных книг по архитектуре - 52 книги

Contents
Introduction
0.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 1
0.2 Geography ............................................................................................................................ 3
0.3 Ecological Environment ..................................................................................................... 4
0.4 Legal Jurisdiction................................................................................................................. 4
0.5 Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences.................................................... 5
0.6 Typical Marine Structures and Contracts........................................................................ 8
0.7 Interaction of Design and Construction .......................................................................... 9
Chapter 1 Physical Environmental Aspects of Marine and
Offshore Construction
1.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 15
1.2 Distances and Depths ....................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy .............................................................................. 16
1.4 Temperature ....................................................................................................................... 17
1.5 Seawater and Sea–Air Interface Chemistry .................................................................. 18
1.5.1 Marine Organisms ................................................................................................ 18
1.6 Currents .............................................................................................................................. 20
1.7 Waves and Swells .............................................................................................................. 25
1.8 Winds and Storms ............................................................................................................. 31
1.9 Tides and Storm Surges.................................................................................................... 34
1.10 Rain, Snow, Fog, Spray, Atmospheric Icing, and Lightning ...................................... 36
1.11 Sea Ice and Icebergs .......................................................................................................... 37
1.12 Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis............................................................................. 42
1.13 Floods ................................................................................................................................. 43
1.14 Scour ................................................................................................................................... 44
1.15 Siltation and Bed Loads ................................................................................................... 44
1.16 Sabotage and Terrorism.................................................................................................... 45
1.17 Ship Traffic......................................................................................................................... 45
1.18 Fire and Smoke .................................................................................................................. 46
1.19 Accidental Events.............................................................................................................. 46
1.20 Global Warming................................................................................................................. 47
Chapter 2 Geotechnical Aspects: Seafloor and Marine Soils
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 49
2.2 Dense Sands ....................................................................................................................... 52
2.3 Liquefaction of Soils.......................................................................................................... 52
2.4 Calcareous Sands............................................................................................................... 53
2.5 Glacial Till and Boulders on Seafloor............................................................................. 53
2.6 Overconsolidated Silts ..................................................................................................... 54
2.7 Subsea Permafrost and Clathrates.................................................................................. 55

2.8 Weak Arctic Silts and Clays............................................................................................. 55
2.9 Ice Scour and Pingos......................................................................................................... 56
2.10 Methane Gas....................................................................................................................... 56
2.11 Muds and Clays................................................................................................................. 56
2.11.1 Underwater Slopes in Clays ............................................................................. 57
2.11.2 Pile Driving “Set-Up” ........................................................................................ 58
2.11.3 Short-Term Bearing Strength ............................................................................ 58
2.11.4 Dredging .............................................................................................................. 58
2.11.5 Sampling .............................................................................................................. 58
2.11.6 Penetration ........................................................................................................... 59
2.11.7 Consolidation of Clays; Improvement in Strength ....................................... 59
2.12 Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils, Cap Rock ................................. 59
2.13 Unconsolidated Sands ...................................................................................................... 60
2.14 Underwater Sand Dunes (“Megadunes”) ..................................................................... 62
2.15 Bedrock Outcrops.............................................................................................................. 62
2.16 Cobbles............................................................................................................................... 63
2.17 Deep Gravel Deposits ....................................................................................................... 64
2.18 Seafloor Oozes.................................................................................................................... 64
2.19 Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents............................................... 64
2.20 Scour and Erosion ............................................................................................................. 65
2.21 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................ 66
Chapter 3 Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine Construction
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 69
3.2 Oil and Petroleum Products ............................................................................................ 69
3.3 Toxic Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 70
3.4 Contaminated Soils ........................................................................................................... 71
3.5 Construction Wastes.......................................................................................................... 71
3.6 Turbidity ............................................................................................................................. 71
3.7 Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion ....................................................................... 72
3.8 Air Pollution...................................................................................................................... 72
3.9 Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota .......................................... 73
3.10 Aquifers.............................................................................................................................. 74
3.11 Noise ................................................................................................................................... 74
3.12 Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic ............................................................................ 75
3.13 Protection of Existing Structures .................................................................................... 75
3.14 Liquefaction....................................................................................................................... 77
3.15 Safety of the Public and Third-Party Vessels................................................................ 77
3.16 Archaeological Concerns................................................................................................. 78
Chapter 4 Materials and Fabrication for Marine Structures
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 79
4.2 Steel Structures for the Marine Environment............................................................... 79
4.2.1 Steel Materials ....................................................................................................... 80
4.2.2 Fabrication and Welding ..................................................................................... 80
4.2.3 Erection of Structural Steel ................................................................................. 85
4.2.4 Coatings and Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures.................................. 88
4.2.5 High Performance Steels ..................................................................................... 91
4.3 Structural Concrete ........................................................................................................... 91
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4.3.1 General ................................................................................................................... 91
4.3.2 Concrete Mixes and Properties .......................................................................... 91
4.3.2.1 High Performance Concrete— “Flowing Concrete”...................... 95
4.3.2.2 Structural Low-Density Concrete...................................................... 96
4.3.2.3 Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)..................................... 97
4.3.3 Conveyance and Placement of Concrete .......................................................... 97
4.3.4 Curing..................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.5 Steel Reinforcement.............................................................................................. 98
4.3.6 Prestressing Tendons and Accessories............................................................ 102
4.3.7 Embedments........................................................................................................ 105
4.3.8 Coatings for Marine Concrete .......................................................................... 106
4.3.9 Construction Joints............................................................................................. 106
4.3.10 Forming and Support ....................................................................................... 107
4.3.11 Tolerances............................................................................................................ 108
4.4 Hybrid Steel–Concrete Structures................................................................................. 108
4.4.1 Hybrid Structures............................................................................................... 109
4.4.2 Composite Construction.................................................................................... 109
4.5 Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites ............................................................ 111
4.6 Titanium........................................................................................................................... 113
4.7 Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials ..................................................... 114
Chapter 5 Marine and Offshore Construction Equipment
5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 117
5.2 Basic Motions in a Seaway............................................................................................. 118
5.3 Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard ................................................................................... 120
5.4 Stability............................................................................................................................. 121
5.5 Damage Control............................................................................................................... 124
5.6 Barges ............................................................................................................................... 126
5.7 Crane Barges .................................................................................................................... 130
5.8 Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving) ................................................................. 134
5.9 Semisubmersible Barges................................................................................................. 137
5.10 Jack-Up Construction Barges......................................................................................... 140
5.11 Launch Barges.................................................................................................................. 144
5.12 Catamaran Barges ........................................................................................................... 146
5.13 Dredges ............................................................................................................................. 147
5.14 Pipe-Laying Barges ......................................................................................................... 152
5.15 Supply Boats..................................................................................................................... 155
5.16 Anchor-Handling Boats.................................................................................................. 156
5.17 Towboats ........................................................................................................................... 156
5.18 Drilling Vessels ................................................................................................................ 157
5.19 Crew Boats........................................................................................................................ 158
5.20 Floating Concrete Plant .................................................................................................. 158
5.21 Tower Cranes ................................................................................................................... 159
5.22 Specialized Equipment ................................................................................................... 160
Chapter 6 Marine Operations
6.1 Towing.............................................................................................................................. 161
6.2 Moorings and Anchors................................................................................................... 169
6.2.1 Mooring Lines..................................................................................................... 169
6.2.2 Anchors ................................................................................................................ 170
6.2.2.1 Drag Anchors ..................................................................................... 170
6.2.2.2 Pile Anchors........................................................................................ 174
6.2.2.3 Propellant Anchors............................................................................ 174
6.2.2.4 Suction Anchors ................................................................................. 175
6.2.2.5 Driven-Plate Anchors........................................................................ 175
6.2.3 Mooring Systems ................................................................................................ 175
6.3 Handling Heavy Loads at Sea....................................................................................... 183
6.3.1 General ................................................................................................................. 183
6.4 Personnel Transfer at Sea ............................................................................................... 190
6.5 Underwater Intervention, Diving, Underwater Work Systems,
Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs), and Manipulators ............................................ 194
6.5.1 Diving................................................................................................................... 194
6.5.2 Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs).................................................................. 201
6.5.3 Manipulators ....................................................................................................... 203
6.6 Underwater Concreting and Grouting ........................................................................ 203
6.6.1 General ................................................................................................................. 203
6.6.2 Underwater Concrete Mixes............................................................................. 204
6.6.3 Placement of Tremie Concrete.......................................................................... 205
6.6.4 Special Admixtures for Concreting Underwater .......................................... 209
6.6.5 Grout-Intruded Aggregate................................................................................ 212
6.6.6 Pumped Concrete and Mortar ......................................................................... 213
6.6.7 Underbase Grout ................................................................................................ 213
6.6.8 Grout for Transfer of Forces from Piles to Sleeves and
Jacket Legs ........................................................................................................... 215
6.6.9 Low-Strength Underwater Concrete ............................................................... 215
6.6.10 Summary............................................................................................................ 215
6.7 Offshore Surveying, Navigation, and Seafloor Surveys............................................ 216
6.8 Temporary Buoyancy Augmentation........................................................................... 223
Chapter 7 Seafloor Modifications and Improvements
7.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 225
7.2 Controls for Grade and Position................................................................................... 226
7.2.1 Determination of Existing Conditions............................................................. 226
7.3 Seafloor Dredging, Obstruction Removal, and Leveling.......................................... 227
7.4 Dredging and Removal of Hard Material and Rock ................................................ 235
7.5 Placement of Underwater Fills...................................................................................... 240
7.6 Consolidation and Strengthening of Weak Soils........................................................ 245
7.7 Prevention of Liquefaction............................................................................................. 248
7.8 Scour Protection............................................................................................................... 248
7.9 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................... 252
Chapter 8 Installation of Piles in Marine and Offshore Structure
8.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 255
8.2 Fabrication of Tubular Steel Piles ................................................................................. 259
8.3 Transportation of Piling.................................................................................................. 260
8.4 Installing Piles.................................................................................................................. 262
8.5 Methods of Increasing Penetration............................................................................... 285
8.6 Insert Piles ........................................................................................................................ 290
8.7 Anchoring into Rock or Hardpan................................................................................. 291
8.8 Testing High Capacity Piles........................................................................................... 292
8.9 Steel H Piles...................................................................................................................... 293
8.10 Enhancing Stiffness and Capacity of Piles .................................................................. 293
8.11 Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Piles............................................................................. 294
8.12 Handling and Positioning of Piles for Offshore Terminals ...................................... 296
8.13 Drilled and Grouted Piles.............................................................................................. 297
8.14 Cast-in-Drilled-Hole Piles, Drilled Shafts ................................................................... 302
8.15 Other Installation Experience ........................................................................................ 312
8.16 Installation in Difficult Soils .......................................................................................... 312
8.17 Other Methods of Improving the Capacity of Driven Piles..................................... 313
8.18 Slurry Walls, Secant Walls, and Tangent Walls .......................................................... 315
8.19 Steel Sheet Piles ............................................................................................................... 316
8.20 Vibratory Pile Hammers................................................................................................. 317
8.21 Micropiles ......................................................................................................................... 317
Chapter 9 Harbor, River, and Estuary Structures
9.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 319
9.2 Harbor Structures ............................................................................................................ 319
9.2.1 Types..................................................................................................................... 319
9.2.2 Pile-Supported Structures ................................................................................. 319
9.2.2.1 Steel Piles ............................................................................................. 319
9.2.2.2 Concrete Piles ...................................................................................... 320
9.2.2.3 Installation ........................................................................................... 320
9.2.2.4 Batter (Raker) Piles ............................................................................. 322
9.2.2.5 Pile Location ........................................................................................ 323
9.2.2.6 Jetting.................................................................................................... 323
9.2.2.7 Driving Through Obstructions or Very Hard Material ................ 323
9.2.2.8 Staying of Piles.................................................................................... 324
9.2.2.9 Head Connections .............................................................................. 325
9.2.2.10 Concrete Deck ..................................................................................... 326
9.2.2.11 Fender System..................................................................................... 327
9.2.3 Bulkheads, Quay Walls...................................................................................... 327
9.2.3.1 Description........................................................................................... 327
9.2.3.2 Sheet Pile Bulkheads .......................................................................... 327
9.2.3.3 Caisson Quay Walls............................................................................ 330
9.3 River Structures ............................................................................................................... 331
9.3.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 331
9.3.2 Sheet Pile Cellular Structures ........................................................................... 331
9.3.3 “Lift-In” Precast Concrete Shells—“In-the-Wet” Construction .................. 335
9.3.4 Float-In Concrete Structures ............................................................................. 336
9.3.4.1 General ................................................................................................. 336
9.3.4.2 Prefabrication ...................................................................................... 337
9.3.4.3 Launching ............................................................................................ 338
9.3.4.4 Installation ........................................................................................... 339
9.3.4.5 Leveling Pads ...................................................................................... 339
9.3.4.6 Underfill ............................................................................................... 340
9.4 Foundations for Overwater Bridge Piers .................................................................... 343
9.4.1 General ................................................................................................................. 343
9.4.2 Open Caissons .................................................................................................... 344
9.4.3 Pneumatic Caissons ........................................................................................... 345
9.4.4 Gravity-Base Caissons (Box Caissons)............................................................ 346
9.4.5 Pile-Supported Box Caissons............................................................................ 357
9.4.6 Large-Diameter Tubular Piles .......................................................................... 360
9.4.6.1 Steel Tubular Piles .............................................................................. 360
9.4.6.2 Prestressed Concrete Tubular Piles.................................................. 367
9.4.7 Connection of Piles to Footing Block (Pile Cap) ........................................... 370
9.4.8 CIDH Drilled Shafts (Piles)............................................................................... 371
9.4.9 Cofferdams........................................................................................................... 371
9.4.9.1 Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdams............................................................... 372
9.4.9.2 Liquefaction During Cofferdam Construction............................... 375
9.4.9.3 Cofferdams on Slope .......................................................................... 376
9.4.9.4 Deep Cofferdams ................................................................................ 376
9.4.9.5 Portable Cofferdams........................................................................... 378
9.4.10 Protective Structures for Bridge Piers............................................................ 378
9.4.11 Belled Piers ........................................................................................................ 379
9.5 Submerged Prefabricated Tunnels (Tubes).................................................................. 381
9.5.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 381
9.5.2 Prefabrication of Steel–Concrete Composite Tunnel Segments .................. 382
9.5.3 Prefabrication of All-Concrete Tube Segments.............................................. 383
9.5.4 Preparation of Trench ........................................................................................ 384
9.5.5 Installing the Segments ..................................................................................... 385
9.5.6 Underfill and Backfill......................................................................................... 386
9.5.7 Portal Connections ............................................................................................. 386
9.5.8 Pile-Supported Tunnels ..................................................................................... 386
9.5.9 Submerged Floating Tunnels............................................................................ 387
9.6 Storm Surge Barriers....................................................................................................... 387
9.6.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 387
9.6.2 Venice Storm Surge Barrier............................................................................... 388
9.6.3 Oosterschelde Storm Surge Barrier ................................................................. 389
9.7 Flow-Control Structures ................................................................................................. 397
9.7.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 397
9.7.2 Temperature Control Devices........................................................................... 397
Chapter 10 Coastal Structures
10.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 399
10.2 Ocean Outfalls and Intakes.......................................................................................... 399
10.3 Breakwaters .................................................................................................................... 408
10.3.1 General.............................................................................................................. 408
10.3.2 Rubble-Mound Breakwaters ......................................................................... 408
10.3.3 Caisson-Type Breakwaters and Caisson-Retained Islands ...................... 414
10.3.4 Sheet Pile Cellular Breakwaters.................................................................... 415
10.4 Offshore Terminals ........................................................................................................ 416
Chapter 11 Offshore Platforms: Steel Jackets and Pin Piles
11.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 433
11.2 Fabrication of Steel Jackets........................................................................................... 434
11.3 Load-Out, Tie-Down, and Transport.......................................................................... 435
11.4 Removal of Jacket from Transport Barge; Lifting; Launching ............................... 444
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11.5 Upending of Jacket ........................................................................................................ 452
11.6 Installation on the Seafloor .......................................................................................... 455
11.7 Pile and Conductor Installation .................................................................................. 458
11.8 Deck Installation ............................................................................................................ 461
11.9 Examples ......................................................................................................................... 464
11.9.1 Example 1—Hondo ........................................................................................ 464
11.9.2 Example 2—Cognac........................................................................................ 472
11.9.3 Example 3—Cerveza ...................................................................................... 476
Chapter 12 Concrete Offshore Platforms: Gravity-Base Structures
12.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 479
12.2 Stages of Construction.................................................................................................. 483
12.2.1 Stage 1—Construction Basin ........................................................................ 483
12.2.2 Stage 2—Construction of Base Raft ............................................................ 487
12.2.3 Stage 3—Float-Out ......................................................................................... 490
12.2.4 Stage 4—Mooring at Deep-Water Construction Site ............................... 491
12.2.5 Stage 5—Construction at Deep-Water Site ................................................ 492
12.2.6 Stage 6—Shaft Construction ......................................................................... 501
12.2.7 Stage 7—Towing to Deep-Water Mating Site ............................................ 505
12.2.8 Stage 8—Construction of Deck Structure ................................................... 505
12.2.9 Stage 9—Deck Transport ............................................................................... 507
12.2.10 Stage 10—Submergence of Substructure for Deck Mating ..................... 509
12.2.11 Stage 11—Deck Mating ................................................................................. 510
12.2.12 Stage 12—Hookup ......................................................................................... 513
12.2.13 Stage 13—Towing to Installation Site ......................................................... 513
12.2.14 Stage 14—Installation at Site ....................................................................... 514
12.2.15 Stage 15—Installation of Conductors .......................................................... 524
12.3 Alternative Concepts for Construction...................................................................... 525
12.4 Sub-Base Construction.................................................................................................. 529
12.5 Platform Relocation....................................................................................................... 530
12.6 Hybrid Concrete-Steel Platforms ................................................................................ 530
Chapter 13 Permanently Floating Structures
13.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 533
13.2 Fabrication of Concrete Floating Structures.............................................................. 537
13.3 Concrete Properties of Special Importance to Floating Structures ....................... 540
13.4 Construction and Launching ...................................................................................... 541
13.5 Floating Concrete Bridges............................................................................................ 544
13.6 Floating Tunnels ............................................................................................................ 544
13.7 Semi-Submersibles ........................................................................................................ 545
13.8 Barges .............................................................................................................................. 545
13.9 Floating Airfields........................................................................................................... 547
13.10 Structures for Permanently Floating Service ............................................................ 548
13.11 Marinas........................................................................................................................... 549
13.12 Piers for Berthing Large Ships .................................................................................... 549
13.13 Floating Breakwaters .................................................................................................... 549
13.14 Mating Afloat ................................................................................................................. 549
Chapter 14 Other Applications of Marine and Offshore
Construction Technology
14.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 553
14.2 Single-Point Moorings .................................................................................................. 554
14.3 Articulated Columns..................................................................................................... 557
14.4 Seafloor Templates ........................................................................................................ 566
14.5 Underwater Oil Storage Vessels.................................................................................. 572
14.6 Cable Arrays, Moored Buoys, and Seafloor Deployment ...................................... 573
14.7 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion ........................................................................... 574
14.8 Offshore Export and Import Terminals for Cryogenic Gas—LNG and LPG...... 576
14.8.1 General.............................................................................................................. 576
14.9 Offshore Wind-Power Foundations............................................................................ 580
14.10 Wave-Power Structures ................................................................................................ 580
14.11 Tidal Power Stations ..................................................................................................... 581
14.12 Barrier Walls ................................................................................................................... 581
14.13 Breakwaters .................................................................................................................... 582
Chapter 15 Installation of Submarine Pipelines
15.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 583
15.2 Conventional S-Lay Barge............................................................................................ 586
15.3 Bottom-Pull Method...................................................................................................... 603
15.4 Reel Barge ....................................................................................................................... 610
15.5 Surface Float ................................................................................................................... 612
15.6 Controlled Underwater Flotation (Controlled Subsurface Float).......................... 613
15.7 Controlled Above-Bottom Pull.................................................................................... 613
15.8 J-Tube Method from Platform ..................................................................................... 615
15.9 J-Lay from Barge............................................................................................................ 615
15.10 S-Curve with Collapsible Floats ................................................................................. 616
15.11 Bundled Pipes ................................................................................................................ 616
15.12 Directional Drilling (Horizontal Drilling) ................................................................. 616
15.13 Laying Under Ice........................................................................................................... 617
15.14 Protection of Pipelines: Burial and Covering with Rock........................................ 617
15.15 Support of Pipelines...................................................................................................... 624
15.16 Cryogenic Pipelines for LNG and LPG..................................................................... 625
Chapter 16 Plastic and Composite Pipelines and Cables
16.1 Submarine Pipelines of Composite Materials and Plastics .................................... 627
16.1.1 High Density Polyethylene Pipelines .......................................................... 627
16.1.2 Fiber-Reinforced Glass Pipes ........................................................................ 629
16.1.3 Composite Flexible Pipelines and Risers .................................................... 630
16.2 Cable Laying .................................................................................................................. 631
Chapter 17 Topside Installation
17.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 633
17.2 Module Erection ............................................................................................................ 633
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17.3 Hookup ........................................................................................................................... 636
17.4 Giant Modules and Transfer of Complete Deck ...................................................... 637
17.5 Float-Over Deck Structures.......................................................................................... 638
17.5.1 Delivery and Installation ............................................................................... 638
17.5.2 Hi-Deck Method.............................................................................................. 640
17.5.3 French "Smart" System................................................................................... 640
17.5.4 The Wandoo Platform .................................................................................... 641
17.5.5 Other Methods ................................................................................................ 641
Chapter 18 Repairs to Marine Structures
18.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 643
18.2 Principles Governing Repairs...................................................................................... 644
18.3 Repairs to Steel Structures ........................................................................................... 645
18.4 Repairs to Corroded Steel Members .......................................................................... 648
18.5 Repairs to Concrete Structures.................................................................................... 648
18.6 Repairs to Foundations................................................................................................. 653
18.7 Fire Damage ................................................................................................................... 655
18.8 Pipeline Repairs ............................................................................................................. 655
Chapter 19 Strengthening Existing Structures
19.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 659
19.2 Strengthening of Offshore Platforms, Terminals, Members
and Assemblies .............................................................................................................. 659
19.3 Increasing Capacity of Existing Piles for Axial Loads............................................ 660
19.4 Increasing Lateral Capacity of Piles and Structures
in Soil–Structure Interaction ........................................................................................ 666
19.5 Penetrations Through Concrete Walls ....................................................................... 667
19.6 Seismic Retrofit .............................................................................................................. 669
Chapter 20 Removal and Salvage
20.1 Removal of Offshore Platforms................................................................................... 671
20.2 Removal of Piled Structures (Terminals, Trestles,
Shallow-Water Platforms) ............................................................................................ 672
20.3 Removal of Pile-Supported Steel Platforms.............................................................. 673
20.4 Removal of Concrete Gravity: Base Offshore Platforms......................................... 676
20.5 New Developments in Salvage Techniques.............................................................. 679
20.6 Removal of Harbor Structures .................................................................................... 679
20.7 Removal of Coastal Structures .................................................................................... 680
Chapter 21 Constructibility
21.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 681
21.2 Construction Stages for Offshore Structures............................................................. 682
21.3 Principles of Constructibility....................................................................................... 686
21.4 Facilities and Methods for Fabrication ...................................................................... 687
21.5 Launching ....................................................................................................................... 687
21.5.1 Launch Barges ................................................................................................. 687
21.5.2 Lifting for Transport ....................................................................................... 688
21.5.3 Construction in a Graving Dock or Drydock............................................. 688
21.5.4 Construction in a Basin.................................................................................. 688
21.5.5 Launching from a Ways or a Launch Barge............................................... 689
21.5.6 Sand Jacking .................................................................................................... 690
21.5.7 Rolling-In.......................................................................................................... 691
21.5.8 Jacking Down .................................................................................................. 691
21.5.9 Barge Launching by Ballasting..................................................................... 691
21.6 Assembly and Jointing Afloat ..................................................................................... 692
21.7 Material Selection and Procedures ............................................................................. 693
21.8 Construction Procedures .............................................................................................. 695
21.9 Access .............................................................................................................................. 701
21.10 Tolerances ....................................................................................................................... 702
21.11 Survey Control ............................................................................................................... 703
21.12 Quality Control and Assurance .................................................................................. 704
21.13 Safety ............................................................................................................................... 705
21.14 Control of Construction: Feedback and Modification............................................. 706
21.15 Contingency Planning .................................................................................................. 707
21.16 Manuals.......................................................................................................................... 708
21.17 On-Site Instruction Sheets............................................................................................ 710
21.18 Risk and Reliability Evaluation................................................................................... 711
Chapter 22 Construction in the Deep Sea
22.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 717
22.2 Considerations and Phenomena for Deep-Sea Operations .................................... 718
22.3 Techniques for Deep-Sea Construction...................................................................... 719
22.4 Properties of Materials for the Deep Sea................................................................... 721
22.5 Platforms in the Deep Sea: Compliant Structures ................................................... 726
22.5.1 Description....................................................................................................... 726
22.5.2 Guyed Towers ................................................................................................. 727
22.5.3 Compliant (Flexible) Tower........................................................................... 730
22.5.4 Articulated Towers ......................................................................................... 733
22.6 Tension-Leg Platforms (TLP’s) .................................................................................... 733
22.7 SPARS............................................................................................................................. 735
22.8 Ship-Shaped FPSOs....................................................................................................... 735
22.9 Deep-Water Moorings................................................................................................... 736
22.10 Construction Operations on the Deep Seafloor........................................................ 740
22.11 Deep-Water Pipe Laying .............................................................................................. 743
22.12 Seafloor Well Completions .......................................................................................... 746
22.13 Deep-Water Bridge Piers .............................................................................................. 746
Chapter 23 Arctic Marine Structures
23.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 751
23.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs ...................................................................................................... 752
23.3 Atmospheric Conditions .............................................................................................. 755
23.4 Arctic Seafloor and Geotechnics ................................................................................. 756
23.5 Oceanographic ............................................................................................................... 758
23.6 Ecological Considerations ............................................................................................ 759
23.7 Logistics and Operations.............................................................................................. 760
23.8 Earthwork in the Arctic Offshore ............................................................................... 762
23.9 Ice Structures.................................................................................................................. 766
23.10 Steel and Concrete Structures for the Arctic............................................................. 768
23.10.1 Steel Tower Platforms .................................................................................. 768
23.10.2 Caisson-Retained Islands............................................................................. 768
23.10.3 Shallow-Water Gravity-Base Caissons ...................................................... 769
23.10.4 Jack-Up Structures ........................................................................................ 770
23.10.5 Bottom-Founded Deep-Water Structures.................................................. 770
23.10.6 Floating Structures........................................................................................ 772
23.10.7 Well Protectors and Seafloor Templates.................................................... 773
23.11 Deployment of Structures in the Arctic ..................................................................... 774
23.12 Installation at Site .......................................................................................................... 776
23.13 Ice Condition Surveys and Ice Management............................................................ 786
23.14 Durability....................................................................................................................... 787
23.15 Constructibility .............................................................................................................. 789
23.16 Pipeline Installation ...................................................................................................... 790
23.17 Current Arctic Developments ..................................................................................... 791
References ..................................................................................................................... 793

Chapter 1 An Overview of Roofing 1
Fire Safety and Protection 2
Wind Resistance 3
Estimating Life Expectancy 3
Classifying Roofs 4
Building Low-Slope Roofs 4
Constructing Steep-Slope Roofs 7
Chapter 2 Planning a Job 13
The Importance of Planning 13
Solid Estimating Practice 14
Preroofing Conferences 25
Delegating Responsibility 25
Summary of What Should Be Accomplished at
Preroofing Conferences 27
Closing the Deal with Value Engineering 29
Writing Real-World Contracts 30
Scheduling 34
Investing in Equipment 34
Managing Inventory 35
Disposing of Old Material 37
Chapter 3 Roof Safety 45
Protecting the Worker 45
Training for Physical Safety 46
Guarding against Falls 48
Caring for Injuries 53
Initiating a Safety Program 57
Chapter 4 Tools and Equipment 59
Hand Tools 61
Power Tools 62
Lifting and Climbing Gear 72
Maintaining Tools and Equipment 79
Chapter 5 Built-Up Roofing 81
Welding the Plies 81
Surfacing BUR Systems 89
Handling, Protecting, and Storing Materials 91
Applying BUR Materials 93
Using BUR Application Equipment 97
Installing BUR Roofs 103
Flashing 112
Maintaining BUR Membranes 118
Reroofing BUR Systems 125
Chapter 6 Single-Ply Roofing 135
Casting Thermosets 136
Heating Thermoplastics 144
Featuring Modified Bitumen Roofing 147
Preparing the Roof 150
Applying Single-Ply Materials 156
Seaming Single-Ply Materials 161
Applying Thermoplastic Materials 165
iv CONTENTS
Applying Modified Bitumen Materials 171
Flashing at Terminations 174
Surfacing Single-Ply Roofs 178
Chapter 7 Asphalt Roofing 181
Using Asphalt Shingles 182
Using Roll Asphalt Roofing Materials 184
Using Saturated Felt Underlayments 184
Preparing for Asphalt Roofing Materials 185
Specifying Underlayments 188
Fastening Asphalt Roofing Materials 189
Installing Asphalt Shingles 190
Applying Flashing 196
Reroofing with Strip Shingles 212
Applying Individual Shingles 222
Applying Roll Roofing 223
Applying Double-Coverage Roll Roofing 232
Inspecting the Job 236
Resolving Problem Areas 237
Chapter 8 Wooden Shingles and Shakes 241
Grading Shingles and Shakes 241
Estimating Quantities 245
Applying General Design Details 245
Preparing for Reroofing Jobs 263
Designing Cold-Weather Roof Systems 270
Adding Novel and Distinctive Effects 272
Treating Wooden Roofs 275
Chapter 9 Slate Shingles 279
Examining Slate Characteristics 281
Installing Slate Roofs 288
Designing a Slate Roof 293
Laying Slates 294
Reroofing with Slate 310
Making Additions or Alterations to
Slate Roofs 311
Overcoming Slate Problems 313
Chapter 10 Clay and Concrete Tiles 315
Making Clay Tiles 315
Making Concrete Tiles 319
Preparing the Roof 321
Working with Tiles 322
Making Allowances for Cold Weather 323
Arranging Colored Tiles 324
Fastening Tiles 324
Applying Flashing 328
Installing the Tile Roof 329
Reroofing Tile Roofs 341
Installing Fiber Cement Shakes 343
Chapter 11 Metal Roofing 347
Taking Advantage of Metal Roofing 348
Examining the Types of Metal Roofing 350
Selecting Metal Roofing Materials 353
Evaluating Metal Coatings 355
Choosing Paints and Laminates 356
Using Metal-Working Tools 357
Unloading and Storing Metal Materials 359
Fastening Panels 359
Applying Metal Roofing Panels 363
Repairing and Caring for Metal Roofs 380
Introducing Plastic Panels 382
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 12 The Business of Roofing 387
The Art of Management 388
Before Creating a Business Plan 391
The First Step Is Knowing What You Want 392
Start with Long-Term Goals 393
Setting Short-Term Goals That Guide You toward
What You Want 394
Developing a Business Plan 396
Forecasting and Leveling 401
Marketing and Sales 402
Peripheral Cash Flows 408
Insurance 408
Using Subcontractors 412
Accounting 413
Chapter 13 Computers 415
Employing Computers Rather than Staff 416
Automating the Office 417
A Brief Look at Software 421
Uses of Computers for a Roofing Firm 422
Accounting—the Backbone of Management 435
Taking Advantage of Vendor Discounts 439
Shopping and Discounts 440
Management Software 440
Reporting on Activities 441
Miscellaneous Software 441
Hardware 442
Chapter 14 Developing Cash Flow from Miscellaneous
Roof Work 443
Warranties and Maintenance Contracts as
Additional Revenue Sources 443
Reroofing Can Be a Healthy Cash Cow 453
Roof Drain Systems 455
Change Orders as a Profit Center 473
The Roofing Consultant 474
Promoting Roof Accessories 481
The Future of Roofing 485
Appendix A Using the CD 491
Resource Directory 492
Appendix B Metric Conversion Guide for the Roofer 531
Index 537

Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Foreword ix
Chapter 1
Introduction: global perspective 3
Chapter 2
Expert rules 17
Chapter 3
Protoscientific and pseudoscientific
conventions 35
Chapter 4
Calculations 57
Chapter 5
Planning 67
Chapter 6
Environmental assessment 85
4 9
3 5
8 1
vi Contents
Chapter 7
Human factors 111
Chapter 8
Crime and its relation to the
environment 127
Chapter 9
Structures 133
Chapter 10
An overview of the theory of
time and space 141
Chapter 11
Form and shape theory in
time and space theory 147
Chapter 12
Services 151
Chapter 13
Overlooked and overblown issues of drainage,
water supply and storage, ventilation, electrical
supply and installation, lighting, and sound 157
Chapter 14
Building elements 165
Chapter 15
Resources 173
Bibliography 177
Index 193

Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Foreword ix
Chapter 1
Introduction: global perspective 3
Chapter 2
Expert rules 17
Chapter 3
Protoscientific and pseudoscientific
conventions 35
Chapter 4
Calculations 57
Chapter 5
Planning 67
Chapter 6
Environmental assessment 85
4 9
3 5
8 1
vi Contents
Chapter 7
Human factors 111
Chapter 8
Crime and its relation to the
environment 127
Chapter 9
Structures 133
Chapter 10
An overview of the theory of
time and space 141
Chapter 11
Form and shape theory in
time and space theory 147
Chapter 12
Services 151
Chapter 13
Overlooked and overblown issues of drainage,
water supply and storage, ventilation, electrical
supply and installation, lighting, and sound 157
Chapter 14
Building elements 165
Chapter 15
Resources 173
Bibliography 177
Index 193

Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
1 General Information
Climate maps 1
Metric system 8
Metric units 10
Temperature 11
Imperial units 12
Conversion factors 14
Greek alphabet 17
Geometric data 18
Paper sizes 24
Drawing conventions 28
Perspective drawing 32
CI/SfB Construction Index 34
Uniclass 40
2 Planning
Planning and other permissions 41
Building Regulations 1991 52
Standards – in the construction industry 56
Sustainability, energy saving and green issues 59
Anthropometric data 64
Furniture and fittings data 68
Miscellaneous data 78
Sanitary provision for public buildings 82
Trees for towns 86
Hedges 88
3 Structures
Weights of materials 89
Newtons 93
Imposed loads 94
Fire resistance 99
Bending moments and beam formulae 100
Safe loads on subsoils 102
Timber 103
Brickwork and blockwork 106
Concrete 108
Steelwork 112
4 Services
Drainage 119
Rainwater disposal 122
Water supply regulations 123
Water storage 127
U-, R- and K- values 130
Thermal insulation 132
Heat losses 134
Central heating and hot water systems 136
Ventilation 138
Electrical installation 144
Lighting 147
Sound 164
5 Building Elements
Stairs and gradients 167
Fireplaces 170
Chimneys and flues 172
Doors 174
Windows 180
Security fittings 188
6 Materials
Brickwork and blockwork 191
Stonework 200
Dampness in buildings 204
Plaster and render 205
Metals 211
Roofing 214
Glass 237
Timber 250
Building boards 269
Plastics 276
Nails and screws 278
Paints 280
Addresses 287
Sources 297
Index 300

Introduction 7
Time 11
Two temples 15
Can we describe how we design? 19
Three monuments 39
Witnesses 63
Thinking & drawing 83
Was it like this? 101
Travel, books & memory 111
The vernacular & style 119
Materials 125
Structure 137
Light 145
Architecture & language 151
Looking at pictures 155
The office & the school 159
Does it matter? 163
Critical innovation 171
Afterword 179
Notes 181
References 183
Contents

Foreword by Ken Yeang vii
Preface xi
Introduction 1
1 Architecture in the Pacific Century 11
2 Cyberspace in mind 33
3 Technology and process 61
4 Foster and Gehry: one technology; two cultures 91
5 Harry Seidler and the Great Australian Dream 163
6 Mediterranean mix and match 203
Appendix I: Biotech Architecture: a manifesto 233
Appendix II: Birth of a cybernetic factory 237
Notes and bibliography 247
Index 263

Contents
Foreword xi
by Francis Duffy
Preface xiii
List of contributors xv
Acknowledgements xxi
Part One Introduction and Overview 1
1. The evolution of building performance evaluation: an introduction 3
Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Jacqueline C. Vischer
Editorial comment 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Performance levels: a hierarchy of users’ needs and priorities 5
1.3 Evolving evaluation process models: from POE to BPE 7
1.4 The conceptual basis for BPE 9
1.5 An example of the user feedback cycle in BPE: 10
Building-in-use assessment
1.6 Economic and sustainability issues 11
1.7 Conclusions 12
References 13
2. A conceptual framework for building performance evaluation 15
Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Ulrich Schramm
Editorial comment 15
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Description of the conceptual framework for BPE 16
2.3 The performance concept and the building process 20
2.4 Conclusions 26
References 26
Part Two Performance Assessments in the Six-Phase 27
Building Delivery and Life Cycle
3. Phase 1: Strategic planning – effectiveness review 29
Ulrich Schramm
3.1 What is strategic planning? 29
3.2 Why strategic planning? 30
3.3 Who is involved in strategic planning? 31
3.4 Effectiveness review 32
3.5 Case study example 33
References 38
4. Phase 2: Programming/briefing – programme review 39
Alexi Marmot, Joanna Eley, and Stephen Bradley
Editorial comment 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 How are briefs prepared? 41
4.3 Common briefing problems 44
4.4 Techniques for briefing 46
4.5 Contextual issues for consideration 49
4.6 Conclusions 51
References 51
5. Phase 3: Design – design review 52
Jacqueline C.Vischer
Editorial comment 52
5.1 Introduction: defining design review 52
5.2 Implementing design review 54
5.3 Tools and skills for design review 54
5.4 Design review: a case study example 55
5.5 The value of design review 59
5.6 Conclusions 60
References 61
6. Phase 4: Construction – commissioning 62
Michael J. Holtz
Editorial comment 62
6.1 Introduction 62
6.2 Commissioning defined 63
6.3 Commissioning versus construction administration 64
6.4 The commissioning process 64
6.5 Commissioning tools 69
6.6 Conclusions 70
References 70
7. Phase 5: Occupancy – post-occupancy evaluation 72
Bill Bordass and Adrian Leaman
Editorial comment 72
7.1 Introduction 72
7.2 The origins of POE 73
7.3 Recent developments 74
7.4 Making feedback and POE routine 75
7.5 Moving forward 76
7.6 Conclusions and next steps 78
References and further reading 78
Contents vi
8. Phase 6: Adaptive reuse/recycling – market needs assessment 80
Danny S.S. Then
Editorial comment 80
8.1 The drive for measures of building performance 80
8.2 Building performance and facility management 81
8.3 Business context of operational facilities performance 82
8.4 Review of current practice in measuring facilities performance 83
8.5 A new view for determining facilities performance 85
8.6 Conclusions 88
Acknowledgements 88
References 89
Part Three Case Studies 91
9. Benchmarking the ‘sustainability’ of a building project 93
Susan Roaf
Editorial comment 93
9.1 Introduction: the problems are known 93
9.2 The role of BPE in making buildings sustainable 96
9.3 The rationale for incorporating issues of sustainability 96
9.4 The client’s choices 98
9.5 What are the key issues of sustainability? 99
9.6 What are indicators and benchmarks? 99
9.7 What issues should be included in an indicator set? 100
9.8 Conclusions 101
References 101
10. Introducing the ASTM facilities evaluation methodology 104
Françoise Szigeti, Gerald Davis, and David Hammond
Editorial comment 104
10.1 Overview 104
10.2 Methodology and tools 105
10.3 Applying the methodology to assess the suitability of 114
a portfolio of assets
10.4 Conclusions 115
Acknowledgements 116
References 116
11. Assessing the performance of offices of the future 118
Rotraut Walden
Editorial comment 118
11.1 Increasing productivity in companies through better office buildings 118
11.2 User needs analysis 119
11.3 Methodology 120
11.4 Selected results 122
11.5 Conclusions 124
11.6 Summary 125
Acknowledgements 126
References 126
Contents vii
12. Assessing Brazilian workplace performance 128
Sheila Walbe Ornstein, Cláudia Miranda de Andrade, and
Brenda Chaves Coelho Leite
Editorial comment 128
12.1 Background 129
12.2 Methodology 129
12.3 Description of the two buildings 132
12.4 Physical occupancy evaluation 134
12.5 User feedback evaluation 135
12.6 Environmental comfort evaluation 136
12.7 Conclusions and recommendations 137
Acknowledgements 138
References 138
13. User satisfaction surveys in Israel 140
Ahuva Windsor
Editorial comment 140
13.1 The organizational context of post-occupancy evaluations 140
13.2 The government centres project 141
13.3 Post-occupancy activities 143
13.4 The user satisfaction survey at the GIA 143
13.5 Findings of the user satisfaction survey at the GIA 144
13.6 Conclusions 147
References 147
14. Building performance evaluation in Japan 149
Akikazu Kato, Pieter C. Le Roux, and Kazuhisa Tsunekawa
Editorial comment 149
14.1 Introduction 150
14.2 The evolution of workplace quality standards 150
14.3 BPE methodology in Japan 152
14.4 Case study: workplace mapping in an innovative workplace 154
14.5 Staffing typologies 156
14.6 Workplace mapping results 156
14.7 Conclusions 158
Acknowledgements 158
References 159
15. Evaluation of innovative workplace design in the Netherlands 160
Shauna Mallory-Hill, Theo J.M. van der Voordt, and Anne van Dortmont
Editorial comment 160
15.1 Overview 160
15.2 Building performance evaluation in the Netherlands 161
15.3 Evaluation methods and performance criteria 161
15.4 Case one: office innovation at ABN-AMRO bank in Breda 162
15.5 Case two: building system innovation in Rijnland 164
Water Board building
Contents viii
15.6 Lessons learned from the two examples 168
References 169
16. Evaluating universal design performance 170
Wolfgang F.E. Preiser
Editorial comment 170
16.1 Introduction 170
16.2 Universal design 171
16.3 Universal design performance and building 173
performance evaluation (BPE)
16.4 Universal design evaluation (UDE) 175
16.5 Strategies for universal design evaluation 176
16.6 Conclusions 177
Acknowledgements 178
References 178
17. The facility performance evaluation working group 180
Craig Zimring, Fehmi Dogan, Dennis Dunne, Cheryl Fuller, and
Kevin Kampschroer
Editorial comment 180
17.1 Introduction 180
17.2 Lessons-learned from previous evaluation programmes 181
17.3 A common questionnaire 183
17.4 Results 185
17.5 Developing methods and procedures for energy performance 185
17.6 Discussion and conclusions 186
Acknowledgements 187
References 187
18. The human element in building performance evaluation 188
Alex K. Lam
Editorial comment 188
18.1 Introduction 188
18.2 The information generating process 189
18.3 The process leader 190
18.4 Interpersonal skills in process leadership 193
18.5 The emotional intelligence (EQ) of the process leader 193
18.6 Key EQ competencies for the process leader 194
18.7 Conclusions 197
References 197
Part Four Epilogue 199
19. Looking to the future 201
Jacqueline C. Vischer
19.1 Assessing building performance 201
19.2 Phases of building performance evaluation 202
19.3 BPE in a diversity of cultural contexts 203
Contents ix
19.4 Quality and cost 204
19.5 Vision of the future 206
Acknowledgements 207
References 207
Appendix: Measuring instruments for building performance evaluation 209
A.1 Checklist of useful documents for building performance 211
evaluation (BPE) Building performance evaluation (BPE) questions
A.2 Occupant survey 212
A.3 BIU survey questionnaire 215
A.4 NUTAU – Research Center for Architecture and Urban 218
Design Technology
A.5 Building user survey questionnaire, the Netherlands 226
A.6 Measuring the effects of innovative working environments 227
A.7 Three measurement tools from Germany 229
A.8 The principles of universal design 235
A.9 Information sources for building commissioning 237
Index 239

c o n t e n t s
· f o u n d a t i o n s 3
· a s e n s e o f p l a c e 1 9
· l i g h t 5 3
· b u i l d i n g 7 7
· f a c e s 1 0 5
· h e r z b l u t 1 3 3
· t h e p r o p o s a l 1 5 5
· t h e i n v i s i b l e 1 9 1
· m a t e r i a l s 2 1 5
· f o r c e d m a r r i a g e 2 4 3
· f a i t h 2 6 9

CONTENTS
Preface vii
Part One General
Built environment 2
The structure 5
Primary and secondary elements 12
Component parts and functions 15
Construction activities 18
Construction documents 19
Construction drawings 20
Building surveys 27
Method statement and programming 31
Weights and densities of building materials 33
Drawings – notations 35
Planning application 39
Modular coordination 44
Construction regulations 46
CDM regulations 47
Safety signs and symbols 48
Building Regulations 50
British Standards 56
European Standards 57
CPI System of Coding 59
CI/SfB system of coding 60
Part Two Site Works
Site survey 63
Site investigations 64
Soil investigation 66
Soil assessment and testing 73
Site layout considerations 80
Site security 83
Site lighting and electrical supply 86
Site office accommodation 90
Materials storage 93
Materials testing 98
Protection orders for trees and structures 105
Locating public utility services 106
Setting out 107
Levels and angles 111
Road construction 114
Tubular scaffolding and scaffolding systems 122
Shoring systems 134
Part Three Builders Plant
General considerations 144
Bulldozers 147
Scrapers 148
Graders 149
Tractor shovels 150
Excavators 151
Transport vehicles 156
Hoists 159
Rubble chutes and skips 161
Cranes 162
Concreting plant 174
Part Four Substructure
Foundations – function, materials and sizing 183
Foundation beds 192
Short bored pile foundations 198
Foundation types and selection 200
Piled foundations 205
Retaining walls 223
Basement construction 242
Waterproofing basements 245
Excavations 251
Concrete production 257
Cofferdams 263
Caissons 265
Underpinning 267
Ground water control 278
Soil stabilisation and improvement 286
Reclamation of waste land 291
Contaminated sub-soil treatment 292
Part Five Superstructure
Choice of materials 296
Brick and block walls 297
Damp-proof courses and membranes 317
Gas resistant membranes 324
Calculated brickwork 326
Mortars 329
Arches and openings 332
Windows, glass and glazing 339
Domestic and industrial doors 361
Crosswall construction 370
Timber frame construction 372
Steel frame construction 374
Reinforced concrete framed structures 386
Reinforcement types 390
Formwork 393
Precast concrete frames 398
Structural steelwork 409
Portal frames 422
Composite timber beams 430
Multi-storey structures 432
Roofs – basic forms 434
Pitched and flat roofs 438
Plain tiling 445
Single lap tiling 451
Slating 453
Dormer windows 462
Dry and wet rot 471
Long span roofs 479
Shell roof construction 485
Rooflights 494
Cladding to external walls 498
Panel walls 501
Rainscreen cladding 505
Structural glazing 507
Curtain walling 508
Concrete claddings 512
Thermal insulation 517
Thermal bridging 536
Access for the disabled 540
Part Six Internal Construction and Finishes
Internal elements 545
Internal walls 546
Construction joints 551
Partitions 552
Plasters and plastering 557
Dry lining techniques 559
Wall tiling 563
Domestic floors and finishes 565
Large cast insitu ground floors 571
Concrete floor screeds 573
Timber suspended floors 575
Lateral restraint 578
Contents
Timber beam design 581
Reinforced concrete suspended floors 583
Precast concrete floors 588
Raised access floors 591
Sound insulation 592
Timber, concrete and metal stairs 597
Internal doors 620
Doorsets 623
Fire resisting doors 624
Plasterboard ceilings 629
Suspended ceilings 630
Paints and painting 634
Joinery production 638
Composite boarding 643
Plastics in building 645
Part Seven Domestic Services
Drainage effluents 648
Subsoil drainage 649
Surface water removal 651
Road drainage 654
Rainwater installations 658
Drainage systems 660
Drainage pipe sizes and gradients 668
Water supply 669
Cold water installations 671
Hot water installations 673
Flow controls 676
Cisterns and cylinders 677
Pipework joints 679
Sanitary fittings 680
Single and ventilated stack systems 683
Domestic hot water heating systems 686
Electrical supply and installation 690
Gas supply and gas fires 699
Services–fire stops and seals 703
Open fireplaces and flues 704
Telephone installations 713
Electronic communications installations 714
Index 715

CONTENTS
Preface vii
Part One General
Built environment 2
The structure 5
Primary and secondary elements 12
Component parts and functions 15
Construction activities 18
Construction documents 19
Construction drawings 20
Building surveys 27
Method statement and programming 31
Weights and densities of building materials 33
Drawings – notations 35
Planning application 39
Modular coordination 44
Construction regulations 46
CDM regulations 47
Safety signs and symbols 48
Building Regulations 50
British Standards 56
European Standards 57
CPI System of Coding 59
CI/SfB system of coding 60
Part Two Site Works
Site survey 63
Site investigations 64
Soil investigation 66
Soil assessment and testing 73
Site layout considerations 80
Site security 83
Site lighting and electrical supply 86
Site office accommodation 90
Materials storage 93
Materials testing 98
Protection orders for trees and structures 105
Locating public utility services 106
Setting out 107
Levels and angles 111
Road construction 114
Tubular scaffolding and scaffolding systems 122
Shoring systems 134
Part Three Builders Plant
General considerations 144
Bulldozers 147
Scrapers 148
Graders 149
Tractor shovels 150
Excavators 151
Transport vehicles 156
Hoists 159
Rubble chutes and skips 161
Cranes 162
Concreting plant 174
Part Four Substructure
Foundations – function, materials and sizing 183
Foundation beds 192
Short bored pile foundations 198
Foundation types and selection 200
Piled foundations 205
Retaining walls 223
Basement construction 242
Waterproofing basements 245
Excavations 251
Concrete production 257
Cofferdams 263
Caissons 265
Underpinning 267
Ground water control 278
Soil stabilisation and improvement 286
Reclamation of waste land 291
Contaminated sub-soil treatment 292
Part Five Superstructure
Choice of materials 296
Brick and block walls 297
Damp-proof courses and membranes 317
Gas resistant membranes 324
Calculated brickwork 326
Mortars 329
Arches and openings 332
Windows, glass and glazing 339
Domestic and industrial doors 361
Crosswall construction 370
Timber frame construction 372
Steel frame construction 374
Reinforced concrete framed structures 386
Reinforcement types 390
Formwork 393
Precast concrete frames 398
Structural steelwork 409
Portal frames 422
Composite timber beams 430
Multi-storey structures 432
Roofs – basic forms 434
Pitched and flat roofs 438
Plain tiling 445
Single lap tiling 451
Slating 453
Dormer windows 462
Dry and wet rot 471
Long span roofs 479
Shell roof construction 485
Rooflights 494
Cladding to external walls 498
Panel walls 501
Rainscreen cladding 505
Structural glazing 507
Curtain walling 508
Concrete claddings 512
Thermal insulation 517
Thermal bridging 536
Access for the disabled 540
Part Six Internal Construction and Finishes
Internal elements 545
Internal walls 546
Construction joints 551
Partitions 552
Plasters and plastering 557
Dry lining techniques 559
Wall tiling 563
Domestic floors and finishes 565
Large cast insitu ground floors 571
Concrete floor screeds 573
Timber suspended floors 575
Lateral restraint 578
Contents
Timber beam design 581
Reinforced concrete suspended floors 583
Precast concrete floors 588
Raised access floors 591
Sound insulation 592
Timber, concrete and metal stairs 597
Internal doors 620
Doorsets 623
Fire resisting doors 624
Plasterboard ceilings 629
Suspended ceilings 630
Paints and painting 634
Joinery production 638
Composite boarding 643
Plastics in building 645
Part Seven Domestic Services
Drainage effluents 648
Subsoil drainage 649
Surface water removal 651
Road drainage 654
Rainwater installations 658
Drainage systems 660
Drainage pipe sizes and gradients 668
Water supply 669
Cold water installations 671
Hot water installations 673
Flow controls 676
Cisterns and cylinders 677
Pipework joints 679
Sanitary fittings 680
Single and ventilated stack systems 683
Domestic hot water heating systems 686
Electrical supply and installation 690
Gas supply and gas fires 699
Services–fire stops and seals 703
Open fireplaces and flues 704
Telephone installations 713
Electronic communications installations 714
Index 715

Preface 7
1 Introduction 11
History 11
Earth as a building material: the essentials 13
Improving indoor climate 15
Prejudices against earth as a building material 18
2 The properties of earth as a building material 19
Composition 19
Tests used to analyse the composition of loam 21
Effects of water 24
Effects of vapour 29
Influence of heat 31
Strength 32
pH-value 35
Radioactivity 35
Shelter against high-frequency electromagnetic
radiation 35
3 Preparing of loam 36
Soaking, crushing and mixing 36
Sieving 38
Mechanical slurrying 38
Water Curing 38
Thinning 38
4 Improving the earth’s characteristics
by special treatment or additives 39
Reduction of shrinkage cracks 39
Stabilisation against water erosion 40
Enhancement of binding force 42
Increasing compressive strength 43
Strength against abrasion 47
Increasing thermal insulation 47
5 Rammed earthworks 52
Formwork 53
Tools 54
Method of construction 55
Shaping of openings 55
New wall construction techniques 56
Rammed earth domes 59
Drying 59
Labour input 60
Thermal insulation 60
Surface treatment 60
6 Working with earthen blocks 61
History 61
Production of earth blocks 62
Material composition 65
Laying earth blocks 65
Surface treatment 66
Fixing fasteners to walls 67
Lightweight loam blocks 67
Special acoustic green bricks 68
7 Large blocks and prefabricated panels 69
Large blocks 69
Prefabricated wall panels 70
Floor slabs 70
Floor tiles 71
Extruded loam slabs 71
8 Direct forming with wet loam 72
Traditional wet loam techniques 72
The “Dünne loam loaf” technique 74
The stranglehm technique 75
9 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures 80
Thrown loam 80
Sprayed loam 80
Rolls and bottles of straw loam 81
Lightweight loam infill 82
Infill with stranglehm and earth-filled hoses 82
10 Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight loam 83
Formwork 83
Tamped lightweight straw loam walls 83
Tamped lightweight wood loam walls 84
Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight
mineral loam walls 85
Pumped lightweight mineral loam floors 88
Loam-filled hollow blocks 89
Loam-filled hoses 90
11 Loam plasters 92
Preparation of ground 92
Composition of loam plaster 92
Guidelines for plastering earth walls 94
Sprayed plaster 95
Lightweight mineral loam plaster 95
Thrown plaster 95
Plastered straw bale houses 95
Wet formed plaster 96
Protection of corners 96
I The technology of earth building
Appendices 5
12 Weather protection of loam surfaces 98
Consolidating the surface 98
Paints 98
Making surfaces water-repellent 101
Lime plasters 101
Shingles, planks and other covers 103
Structural methods 103
13 Repair of loam components 104
The occurrence of damage in loam components 104
Repair of cracks and joints with loam fillers 104
Repair of cracks and joints with other fillers 105
Repairing larger areas of damage 105
Retrofitting thermal insulation with lightweight loam 106
14 Designs of particular building elements 107
Joints 107
Particular wall designs 108
Intermediate floors 110
Rammed earth floorings 112
Inclined roofs filled with lightweight loam 115
Earth-covered roofs 115
Earth block vaults and domes 117
Earthen storage wall in winter gardens 131
Loam in bathrooms 132
Built-in furniture and sanitary objects from loam 133
Wall heating systems 134
Passive solar wall heating system 134
15 Earthquake-resistant building 135
Structural measures 136
Openings for doors and windows 140
Bamboo-reinforced rammed earth walls 141
Domes 144
Vaults 145
Textile walls with loam infill 147
Residences
Two semi-deatched houses, Kassel, Germany 150
Residence cum office, Kassel, Germany 153
Farmhouse, Wazipur, India 156
Honey House at Moab, Utah, USA 157
Three-family house, Stein on the Rhine,
Switzerland 158
Residence, La Paz, Bolivia 160
Residence, Turku, Finland 161
Residence and studio at Gallina Canyon,
New Mexico, USA 162
Residence at Des Montes, near Taos,
New Mexico, USA 164
Casita Nuaanarpoq at Taos, New Mexico, USA 166
Residence and office at Bowen Mountain,
New South Wales, Australia 167
Vineyard Residence at Mornington Peninsula,
Victoria, Australia 168
Residence, Helensville, New Zealand 170
Residence, São Francisco Xavier, Brazil 172
Cultural, Educational and Sacral Buildings
Panafrican Institute for Development, Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso 174
Office building, New Delhi, India 176
School at Solvig, Järna, Sweden 178
Kindergarten, Sorsum, Germany 180
Cultural Centre, La Paz, Bolivia 182
Mosque, Wabern, Germany 183
Druk White Lotus School, Ladakh, India 184
Mii amo Spa at Sedona, Arizona, USA 186
Tourist resort at Baird Bay, Eyre Peninsula,
South Australia 188
Charles Sturt University at Thurgoona,
New South Wales, Australia 189
Youth Centre at Spandau, Berlin, Germany 190
Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin, Germany 192
Center of Gravity Foundation Hall at Jemez Springs,
New Mexico, USA 194
Future prospects 196
Measures 197
Bibliographical references 198
Acknowledgements 199
Illustration

Part I: Defining the field
1 Why study vernacular architecture? (1978) 3
2 The importance of the study of vernacular
architecture (1993) 17
3 Problems of definition and praxis (1999) 27
Part II: Cultures and contexts
4 Learning from Asante (2000) 47
5 Cultural traits and environmental contexts: Problems
of cultural specificity and cross-cultural comparability
(1999) 55
6 Huizhou and Herefordshire: A comparative study (2001) 69
7 Tout confort: Culture and comfort (1986) 87
Part III: Tradition and transmission
8 Vernacular know-how (1982) 109
9 Earth as a building material today (1983) 129
10 Handed down architecture: Tradition
and transmission (1989) 143
11 Technology transfer: A vernacular view (2003) 163
Part IV: Cultures, disasters and dwellings
12 The cultural context of shelter provision (1978) 185
13 Earthen housing and cultures in seismic areas (1984) 197
14 Factors affecting the acceptability of resettlement
housing (1984) 223
15 Rebirth of a Rajput village (1992) 247
Part V: Conservation and continuity
16 Conserving the vernacular in developing
countries (1986) 267
17 Re-presenting and representing the vernacular:
The open-air museum (2001) 287
18 Perfect and plain: Shaker approaches to design (1990) 315
Part VI: Suburbs and self-builders
19 Individualizing Dunroamin (1992) 333
20 Round the houses (1983) 349
21 Kaluderica: High-grade housing in an illegal
settlement (1989) 365
Part VII: Meeting the challenge of the twenty-first century
22 Tradition by itself (2000) 383
23 Ethics and vernacular architecture (2000) 395
24 Necessity and sustainability: The impending
crisis (2002) 411
Conferences and publications 427
Index 431

Introduction vii
1 Talking and listening to children 1
Alison Clark
The author describes a methodology for interacting with young children to gain important insights
about the architecture and detail design of their space, the childcare centre.
2 Designing for play 14
Michael Laris
Designer Michael Laris explains his approach to the design of playground equipment as one
where his respect for children helps to create a particularly child-orientated environment.
3 Place making and change in learning environments 30
Bruce A Jilk
Here, educationist Bruce Jilk posits the view that our school system, the curriculum and its physical
context is an obsolete form for education in the twenty-first century. He proposes a more flexible
model which allows much more creativity within the learning process and the environments
which serve it.
4 The school building as third teacher 44
Eleanor Nicholson
Drawing on her discussions with staff and students in Californian schools, Eleanor Nicholson
explains how important the environment is in complementing the educational and social support
of the pedagogy.
5 The classroom is a microcosm of the world 66
John Edwards
John Edwards observes a wide range of existing classrooms in use. He illustrates the complex
integration of activities and functions which take place within this most intensively inhabited room.
6 The classroom as an evolving landscape 101
Prue Chiles
Her inspiring approach to design, incorporating a process of deep consultation and an overtly
child-centred attitude to design, encapsulates the key principles of designing the inside–outside
classroom.
7 The schools we’d like: young people’s participation in architecture 114
Ben Koralek and Maurice Mitchell
The authors describe their project where children and architecture students were encouraged
to participate in the design of their school. This reminds us of the need to interact with children
as well as to instruct them.
8 Digital landscapes – the new media playground 154
Mark Dudek
The author explains aspects of the new digital culture of childhood which has transformed the
social lives of children in the home and is increasingly dictating new educational strategies at school.
9 Spaces without children 178
Helen Penn
Research carried out by the author shows how the public domain has become a place which is
largely devoid of children. When we construct spaces which are geared towards shopping and the
car, we all lose out, particularly children.
10 Razor blades and teddy bears – the health and safety protocol 195
Judith and John Hicks
Experts in the health and safety field discuss the issues surrounding the design of children’s play
environments. They outline the practical and legal implications of designing for children and
explain the current cultural climate which makes it essential to design safe, accessible playgrounds.
11 The sustainable landscape 215
Susan Herrington
Susan Herrington describes the approach to procuring a new schoolyard in Vancouver. She sets out
her concerns about the urban environment, and the messages it sends out to children about their
place in a fragile world.
12 The edible landscape of school 245
Catherine Burke
Obesity is becoming an epidemic. Here the pivotal role food should play within the educational
curriculum is discussed with some inspiring examples of projects where cultivation and food
production take place in the school grounds.
Index 279
Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................. xi
Section 1. Products and Materials .................................................................. 1.1
1.1 Cement ............................................................................................................... 1.2
1.2 Mason’s Lime ..................................................................................................... 1.6
1.3 Admixtures ......................................................................................................... 1.7
1.4 Coloring Pigments .............................................................................................. 1.12
1.5 Aggregates ......................................................................................................... 1.13
1.6 Clay Brick ........................................................................................................... 1.17
1.7 Structural Clay Tile ............................................................................................. 1.28
1.8 Glass Block ........................................................................................................ 1.31
1.9 Concrete Masonry Units ..................................................................................... 1.32
1.10 Natural Stone ..................................................................................................... 1.42
Section 2. Concrete, Mortar, and Grout Mixes ............................................... 2.1
2.1 Concrete, Mortar, and Grout .............................................................................. 2.2
2.2 Normal Weight Concrete Mixes ......................................................................... 2.5
2.3 Masonry Mortar .................................................................................................. 2.22
2.4 Masonry Grout ................................................................................................... 2.29
2.5 Fiber-reinforced Concrete .................................................................................. 2.33
2.6 Lightweight Concrete ......................................................................................... 2.36
2.7 High-strength Concrete ...................................................................................... 2.39
Section 3. Concrete and Masonry Performance Characteristics ................. 3.1
3.1 Strength .............................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2 Thermal Resistance ........................................................................................... 3.6
3.3 Fire Resistance .................................................................................................. 3.14
3.4 Expansion and Contraction ................................................................................ 3.21
3.5 Acoustical Resistance ........................................................................................ 3.39
3.6 Weather Resistance ........................................................................................... 3.48
Section 4. Formwork ........................................................................................ 4.1
4.1 Form Materials ................................................................................................... 4.2
4.2 Construction Details ........................................................................................... 4.10
Section 5. Reinforcement ................................................................................ 5.1
5.1 Steel Reinforcing Bars ....................................................................................... 5.2
5.2 Welded Wire Fabric Reinforcement ................................................................... 5.11
5.3 Prestressing Wire, Strands, and Bars ................................................................ 5.14
5.4 Prefabricated Masonry Joint Reinforcement ...................................................... 5.21
5.5 Corrosion Protection .......................................................................................... 5.23
5.6 Fiber Reinforcement ........................................................................................... 5.25
Section 6. Accessories .................................................................................... 6.1
6.1 Masonry Connectors .......................................................................................... 6.2
6.2 Reinforcing Bar Supports and Positioners ......................................................... 6.11
6.3 Concrete Connectors ......................................................................................... 6.15
6.4 Corrosion Protection .......................................................................................... 6.28
6.5 Flashing and Weep Accessories ........................................................................ 6.32
Section 7. Construction Procedures .............................................................. 7.1
7.1 Masonry Unit Bonding and Coursing ................................................................. 7.2
7.2 Masonry Construction ........................................................................................ 7.8
7.3 Placing Reinforcement ....................................................................................... 7.17
7.4 Placing and Finishing Concrete ......................................................................... 7.29
7.5 Masonry Grouting ............................................................................................... 7.41
7.6 Curing Concrete and Masonry ........................................................................... 7.45
7.7 Hot and Cold Weather Procedures .................................................................... 7.51
Section 8. Site and Landscape Elements ....................................................... 8.1
8.1 Concrete Paving ................................................................................................. 8.2
8.2 Masonry Paving ................................................................................................. 8.11
8.3 Traditional Retaining Walls ................................................................................ 8.18
8.4 Segmental CMU Retaining Walls ....................................................................... 8.27
8.5 Freestanding Walls ............................................................................................ 8.29
Section 9. Residential Foundations ................................................................ 9.1
9.1 Soils, Footings, and Foundations ....................................................................... 9.2
9.2 Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF) ........................................................................ 9.21
Section 10. Cast-in-place Concrete .................................................................. 10.1
10.1 General .............................................................................................................. 10.2
10.2 Concrete Foundations and Walls ....................................................................... 10.15
10.3 Concrete Framing Systems ................................................................................ 10.29
10.4 Shotcrete ............................................................................................................ 10.50
Section 11. Precast and Prestressed Concrete ............................................... 11.1
11.1 Precast Concrete Concepts ............................................................................... 11.3
11.2 Environmental Performance Concepts .............................................................. 11.24
11.3 Handling and Erection Concepts ........................................................................ 11.35
11.4 Reinforcing Concepts ......................................................................................... 11.38
11.5 Connection Concepts ......................................................................................... 11.42
11.6 Tolerance Concepts ........................................................................................... 11.64
11.7 Insulated Concrete Panels ................................................................................. 11.78
11.8 Composite Panels, GFRC, and Cast Stone ....................................................... 11.81
Section 12. Tilt-up Concrete .............................................................................. 12.1
12.1 Loadbearing Tilt-up Walls .................................................................................. 12.2
12.2 Forming, Rigging, and Connecting Tilt-up Wall Panels ...................................... 12.22
12.3 Wall-to-foundation Connections ......................................................................... 12.24
12.4 Wall-to-floor Connections ................................................................................... 12.26
12.5 Wall-to-roof Connections .................................................................................... 12.30
12.6 Wall-to-wall Connections .................................................................................... 12.43
12.7 Wall-to-steel Column Connections ..................................................................... 12.50
Section 13. Single-wythe Masonry Walls ......................................................... 13.1
13.1 Concrete Block ................................................................................................... 13.2
13.2 Glass Block Masonry ......................................................................................... 13.22
Section 14. Multi-wythe Masonry Walls ............................................................ 14.1
14.1 Multi-wythe Wall Types ...................................................................................... 14.2
14.2 Empirical Design Requirements ......................................................................... 14.4
14.3 Multi-wythe Masonry Wall Details ...................................................................... 14.19
Section 15. Veneer Masonry .............................................................................. 15.1
15.1 Masonry Veneer and Code Requirements ......................................................... 15.2
15.2 Residential Construction Details ........................................................................ 15.8
15.3 Commercial Construction Details ....................................................................... 15.16
Section 16. Masonry Arches and Lintels .......................................................... 16.1
16.1 Masonry Arches ................................................................................................. 16.2
16.2 Lintels ................................................................................................................. 16.7
Section 17. Masonry Fireplaces ........................................................................ 17.1
17.1 Fireplaces ........................................................................................................... 17.2
17.2 Fireplace Flues ................................................................................................... 17.5
Glossary .............................................................................................................. G.1
ASTM Standards ................................................................................................. S.1
Metric Conversion .............................................................................................. M.1
References .......................................................................................................... R.1
Index .................................................................................................................... I.1